Advantages of Discovery Learning

Advantages of Discovery Learning Jump to: Advantages of Discovery Learning Discovery learning was first put into writing by Jerome Bruner in the 1970s. In part II of his book titled The Quest for Clarity, Bruner discusses his views on the Act of Discovery. Bruner states his belief that to successfully educate, the educator must first assess what is already known. In this essay Bruner summarizes the basic principles of discovery learning, their benefits, its process, and a set of experiments that Bruner used which according to him, proved his theory. This essay will use research that supports Bruners theory in an attempt to prove that discovery learning is more effective than direct instruction and explain how educators should teach in result of the research. What is discovery learning? Discovery learning is an approach to learning that can be facilitated by specific teaching methods and guided learning strategies. For this essay the term discovery learning will refer to learning that takes place within in the individual, the teaching and instructional strategies designed by the teacher, and the environment created when these strategies are used. Direct or traditional instruction are strategies used in teacher led classrooms, including lectures, drill and practice, and expository learning. Bicknell, Holmes, and Hoffman (2000) describe the three main attributes of discovery learning as 1) exploring and problem solving to create, integrate, and generalize knowledge, 2) student driven, interest based activities in which student determines the sequence and frequency, and 3) activities to encourage integration of new knowledge into the learners existing knowledge base. The first attribute to discovery learning is a very important one. By exploring problems, and coming up with their own solutions, students are taking an active role in creating integrating, and generalizing knowledge. Students are not passively taking in information, as they would during a lecture, but are coming up with broad applications for skills by taking risks, solving problems, and examining unique, but useful experiences (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). This attribute of discovery learning dramatically changes the role of students and teachers, which some traditional teachers find hard to accept. The second attribute of discovery learning is that it encourages students to learn at their own pace (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). This attribute allow students learning to progress freely as the student is ready to learn new material. Students must obtain a high level of motivation and take ownership in their learning for this attribute to be met. The third major attribute of discovery learning is that it is based on the principle of using existing knowledge as a basis to build new knowledge (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). Students must be encouraged and provided with knowledge they already know to extend this knowledge and build new ideas. A good example of this is when students discover how to multiply a three digit number by a three digit number, by using their knowledge of multiplying a two digit number by a two digit number. The student would build on what they know about multiplication to come up with a new way of multiplying three digits by three digits. How discovery learning differs from traditional learning: The three attributes listed above combine to make discovery learning much different than traditional learning for five main reasons. First, learning is active rather than passive (Mosca and Howard, 1997). Second, learning is process oriented, rather than content oriented. Third, failure is important. Fourth, feedback is necessary (Bonwell, 1998). Last, understanding is deeper (Papert, 2000). Firstly, in discovery learning students are active in constructing their own knowledge. Learning is not defined as sitting back and taking in what is being said, but is defined as one seeking and creating their own new knowledge. Students are participating in hands-on, real life learning activities and solving real problems. The students have a purpose for finding answers and learning more (Mosca Howard, 1997). Secondly, the focus of learning is on the process and how the content is learned, rather than on the final product. Discovery learning focuses on how to analyze and interpret information in order to understand what is being learned. In traditional teaching and learning a lot of times the focus is on recalling information by rote memorization. This type of process oriented learning can be applied to many different topics instead of producing one correct answer for a specific question in a specific topic. Students will achieve a much deeper level of understanding in discovery learning. The emphasis is placed on mastery and application of overarching skills (Bonwell, 1998). Thirdly, failure in discovery learning is seen as a positive circumstance (Bonwell, 1998). Failure in discovery learning is related to a unique lesson learned from Thomas Edison. Edison is said to have tried as many as 1,200 designs for light bulbs before he found one that actually worked. When asked if he felt discouraged from all this failure, Edison responded by saying he never felt discouraged because he learned so many designs that didnt work. Discovery learning does not stress finding the correct answers each time. Cognitive psychologists have shown that failure is central to learning. In fact, if the student does not fail while learning, the student probably has not learned something new (Schank Cleary, 1994). Fourthly, an essential part of discovery learning is an opportunity for feedback in the learning process (Bonwell, 1998). Student learning is enhanced, deepened, and made more permanent by discussion of the topic with other learners (Schank and Cleary, 1994). In discovery learning, students are encouraged to discuss ideas with other students to deepen understanding. This is the opposite of the expectations in most traditional classrooms where students are expected to work in silence and find answers on their own. Lastly, after incorporating each one of the differences of discovery learning understanding becomes deeper. Learners internalize concepts when they go through a natural progression to understand them (Papert, 2000). Discovery learning is a natural part of human beings that begins from the time they are born. Humans are born with curiosities and needs which is the driving force behind why they learn. Infants learn to talk by discovery. The infant listens to others around them talk, mimics the sounds they hear, and begin to put together the pieces of language that they have discovered on their own (Percy, 1954). Discovery learning is a natural process in which students should be involved in on a day to day basis during school. Discovery learning allows for a deeper understanding by encouraging natural investigation through active, process-oriented methods of teaching (Percy, 1954). Advantages of discovery learning: What the research says Of the research that exists looking at the advantages of discovery learning over traditional learning, three main areas of focus have emerged: 1) motivation (Hardy, 1967), 2) retention (Alleman Brophy, 1992; Nelson Fayer, 1972; Peters, 1970), and 3) achievement (Hardy 1967; Mabie Baker 1966). A great advantage of the discovery learning method over traditional method is its ability to highly motivate students to learn. Discovery learning does this because it gives learners the opportunity to seek information that satisfies their natural curiosity. Discovery learning gives students an opportunity to explore their desires and therefore create a more engaging learning environment for themselves. To put it in simpler terms, discovery learning makes learning fun (Schank Cleary, 1994). In a study done by D.W. Hardy (1967), the students learning the principles of archaeology and anthropology through the discovery method of an archaeological dig were better organizers of information, more active in the task of learning, and more highly motivated that those who were taught in a traditional, lecture method. This example makes it easy to see that students would have much more fun actually digging out artifacts from thousands of years ago and making conclusions, than they would if th ey were to just read the same information from a textbook. When looking at information retention, discovery learning seems to at least match the level found when using traditional teaching methods, but could possibly increase information retention as well. Alleman and Brophy (1992) conducted a research study with college students by asking them to recall a memorable social studies activity that they did in kindergarten through the eighth grade. Many more students could easily recall activities that involved experimental learning, higher order applications, which are characteristics of discovery learning. Students also could recall more of the information that was retained from discovery learning type activities than they did from the traditional activities. Another study looked at the level of information retention in kindergarteners, but over a shorter timeframe. Peters (1970) compared kindergarten students learning mathematics using discovery learning methods and their learning using traditional methods. The results of this study found tha t students taught using a discovery learning method had equal, if not more, retention levels to those taught using a traditional method. Nelson Frayer (1970) also looked at the retention of concepts when they compared discovery learning methods to traditional methods. After studying 228 seventh graders who were learning geometry concepts, they found the same results as Peters (1970). When students are learning skills rather than facts, discovery learning has been shown to increase student achievement. Hardys (1967) archaeological study showed that students who were taught using the discovery learning method showed a positive difference in scores on both pre and post tests which measured anthropological understandings, over students taught using the traditional teaching method. Mabie Baker (1996) also conducted a study which yielded similar results. In this study, three groups of fifth grade students were taught concepts about nutrition using three different methods. One group used garden projects, one group used short, in class projects, and the other group was taught by traditional teaching methods. The group being taught using traditional methods only saw an 11% increase in pretest knowledge, compared to a 70%-80% increase in the other two groups that were being taught using discovery methods. Although discovery learning has many benefits over traditional learning, many teachers and school districts still teaching using the traditional lecture methods. Many educators believe that discovery learning cannot be used to cover the course content, discovery learning takes too much effort and time, and discovery learning will not work well with their large classes. According to the research, how should we then teach? After analyzing the research on discovery learning, five main teaching ideas emerge: 1) case based learning, 2) incidental learning, 3) learning by exploring/conversing, 4) learning by reflection, and 5) simulation-based learning (Schank Cleary, 1994). Teachers can use these ideas to incorporate discovery learning into their classroom environment on a daily basis. Case-based learning is the first teaching idea that comes forth in discovery learning. Case based learning has been around for a very long time as Harvard business school was one of the first schools to use this method (Merseth, 1991). Case based learning is just how it sounds, examining real life scenarios and cases and then applying them in new situations. Case based learning can be easily used when studying business, law, and medicine because there are numerous documented cases that deal with aspects of each of these. To use case based learning in the classroom a teacher must have cases readily available and easy for student access. Incidental learning in the second teaching idea that comes forth in discovery learning. Incidental learning takes place when students gain knowledge in passing (Schank Cleary, 1994). Many times incidental learning can take place in the form of game in which students are engaged in. This type of learning is best used when studying uninteresting topics or pure memorization because it gives students a motivation to learn these topics. Two good examples of incidental learning are having a classroom game show and creating a crossword puzzle on a topic of choice. The third teaching idea that emerges with discovery learning is learning by exploring. This type of learning is based on an organized collection of answers to questions that students can ask (Schank Cleary, 1994). This learning by exploring idea is very similar to the Socratic method of questioning. Curiosity is utilized with this method of teaching as students are given a problem to solve but they can only solve it by asking many questions. A good example of learning by exploring is a game called Whats in the bag? (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). To play this game, an object that is related to the topic being studied is placed in a bag. Students must then ask as many questions as it takes to try to figure out what this object is. This game helps students use prior knowledge and experiences to categorize information and discover what is in the bag. The fourth teaching idea that comes from discovery learning is learning by reflection. In this type of teaching the students learn to apply higher level cognitive skills because they must reflect on what they know to learn new information (Schank and Cleary, 1994). This type of learning by reflecting also helps students learn to ask better questions, and in turn do more sophisticated analyses (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). An example of a teacher using the learning by reflecting strategy will many times answer a students question with questions of their own to guide the student. This is also a model of how the student can ask better questions to themselves so that answers to unknowns can be found. The teacher does not directly answer the students question but rather guides the student with questions so they can find their own answer. This type of teaching requires lots of patience by both the teacher and the student as mistakes will be made. Students will learn to use these mistak es to help them better reflect on the topic and ask more sophisticated questions. The last teaching idea that comes from the research on discovery learning is simulation based learning. This type of learning is basically just role playing. The teacher will give the students a made up environment and situation in which the students must develop a complex set of skills or witness other students apply abstract concepts (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). Simulation based learning allows the environment and situation to be manipulated and adapted, with no real life consequences. This helps guide discovery as students can make mistakes and not have to worry about real consequences. Simulation based discovery also allows students to do things that would be impossible in real life, such as taking and planning field trips to other countries, or even outer space. Ever growing use of technology makes this even more possible as computers allow students and teachers to easily manipulate an environment without using much time or effort. This also makes the simulations much more realistic and authentic as pictures and videos from real places can be accessed at any time.

Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire

The people known as the Aztecs (who referred to themselves as the Mexica or Tenocha) originated from a place called Aztlan, somewhere in North or North west Mexico. Sometime in the 12th century they embarked on a period of wander- ing and in the 13th century settled in the valley of central Mexico. About 1345 they founded the town of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs of Tenochtitlan ruled by Montezuma II became the greatest power in Mexico. The city of Tenochtitlan formed an alliance with the neighboring cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan but later became the dominant partner and gained total control of the entire valley.Conquering city after city, Moctezuma and his warrior empire took food, luxury goods, exotic raw materials and war captives. The prisoners of war were saved for sacrifices to the gods. Embarking on a journey of his own in search of gold, General Hernando Cortes lead his group of Spanish troops into the path of the powerful Moctezuma monarchy. After meeting face to face, both men seemingly viewed the other with mutual respect after a friendly exchange of greetings. Trust was not to be gained quite as easily as each leader kept their warriors on constant alert.Even after General Cortes and his troops were settled into luxurious apartments and given a sumptuous meal, they remained very cautious. By placing their cannon into position and readying the cavalry and infantry, they could be ready in a moment s notice. Moctezuma remained alert as well, and had even gone so far as to have his secret room of riches and treasures cemented. He was still uncertain as to whether Cortes was god or man, friend or foe. There is no doubt that the Spaniards viewed Montezuma as mighty, great and wise.I m certain they were astonished and awed over his great fortune, works of gold, jewels, magnificent arts, architecture, and the like. He was definitely not lacking in pomp and splendor. Everything Montezuma owned was excessive and everything he did was carried to the extreme. He su rrounded himself with guards, servants and beautiful women. Great respect was shown to him even though all of his empire did not think he was deserving of it. Cortes and his men surely did not agree with Moctezuma s political ways.He controlled conquered people and his empire was held together by mere force rather than loyalty. The state controlled every aspect of life. Of course, Cortes himself was a conqueror, but his people were not controlled and forced as the Aztecs were. Many of the Aztec people looked upon the Spaniards with curiosity. They did not know how to judge these strange people. Some thought Cortes to be the legendary ruler Quetzalcoatl, whose return to earth had been prophesied. In fact, that may be the only reason Cortes was not met with stronger initial opposition.The Aztecs also resented the kindness and favors their king bestowed upon the general and his men. The Spaniards had freedom that they did not, so I m sure that they viewed them with envy. If they had sp oken out against their king, it would have meant instant death. Other people of the Aztec empire saw the Spaniards as powerful allies against Moctezuma and his imposed rule. Many of the Amerindian people had already began to form allies with Cortes on his way into the capital city of Tenochtitlan. In Aztec Mexico, religion was ever present.The Aztecs worshipped a multitude of gods, each of whom demanded offerings and sacrifices. They considered themselves the chosen people of Huitzilopochtli, the sun and war god, in whose name they were destined to conquer all rival nations. Huitzilopochtli occupied the main temple at Tenochtitlan. He was worshipped daily with offerings of human blood and fresh throbbing hearts, torn from the bodies of sacrificial victims. It was during a tour of the temple that General Cortes tried to convey to Moctezuma that he was being deluded by his idols of evil.Cortes request to erect an image of the Virgin Mary was angrily denied. The Europeans very much bel ieved in the Christian religion and were totally appalled by the Aztec customs. They earnestly wanted permission to build a church there and introduce Christianity. After days of watching the Aztec people build an almost humanlike statue of their sun and war god, the Spanish troops were provoked into an attack. Their mission all along was to invade and assault the Aztec empire, but it was momentarily put on hold when Moctezuma welcomed them.The Spaniards chose to capture Moctezuma and attack the Aztecs during their annual festival of worship and sacrifice to their gods. This festival was equivalent to the Christian version of the Easter holiday. The Spaniards caught the Aztecs off guard and immediately slaughtered many warriors, but the Aztecs quickly revolted against the invaders and killed 53 Spanish prisoners for sacrifice. Moctezuma was killed in the uprising. Cortes, with new troops from Cuba, along with the aid of thousands of Indian allies, finally conquered the Aztec in 1521 .Legend would have us believe that Hernando Cortes was totally ruthless and did nothing but conquer, rape and plunder (rather than trade), but eye witness accounts of the Aztec conquest are few. Some say the conquest was a bloody massacre, others say it was a glorious conquest. Seemingly during that era of time, it was every man for himself. Personally, I do not think Cortes had much of a choice once he was inside the empire because Moctezuma would have inevitably come after him. He could have chosen not to go but, at that time it was take or be taken.Their is no easy way to wage war and under the circumstances Cortes probably did just as other warriors before him had done. The Aztec empire collapsed almost instantly after the conquest. The warriors and noblemen who were not killed immediately died later from rampant smallpox and other diseases. The conquest of the Aztecs marked a significant period for the Spanish. It opened new doors by broadening economic and political gain. In s hort, the European expansion paved the way for a new age, a new beginning, and a major turning point in history.

Obesity in children Essay

Introduction Childhood obesity is a major problem not only nationally but locally as well. Childhood obesity is a doorway to other major issues children suffer from in today’s society such as bullying, and is the major contributor to health related issues not only as a child but issues that will haunt their health in their future endeavors. Let’s Move is a fantastic campaign that brings awareness to the epidemic that is childhood obesity. Attention Getter As Americans we strive to create and maintain a family it’s in our DNA. The whole idea behind having children is to strive to make their lives as fulfilled and as joyous as possible, so how can we possibly look the other way when our children are choosing Xbox and chips over a nice home cooked meal and a game of neighborhood tag. Thesis Statement Over the past three decades the American rate for Childhood Obesity has astoundingly tripled. Today one in three children are deemed overweight or obese. The first step to solving this problem is recognizing it as an epidemic that is hitting OUR children. If we don’t solve this problem nearly one third of all children born in 2000 or later will suffer from diabetes at some point in their lives. Many others will face chronic obesity-related health problems like heart disease, high blood pressure, cancer, and asthma. Presenter Credibility I am by no means a pediatrician or an expert in child rearing. I have no children of my own yet, but I absolutely cannot wait to one day be a mom. All I know is what it’s like to chubby kid growing up and what it’s like to live life unhealthy and unhappy. Now that I’m older I can see ways that my healthy lifestyle is directly related to my mood. Statement of Motivation We are a country that undoubtedly love our children but somehow love has turned into overindulging and over caudling an issue that some just push under the rug to keep children happy; When in turn happiness through cookies will turn to bullying, health issues, and low self-esteem. It’s time to reevaluate how we make our children happy. Preview Thirty years ago, kids ate just one snack a day, whereas now they are trending toward three snacks, resulting in an additional 200 calories a  day. Portion sizes have also exploded. In total, we are now eating 31 percent more calories than we were forty years ago–including 56 percent more fats and oils and 14 percent more sugars and sweeteners. The average American now eats fifteen more pounds of sugar a year than in 1970. Eight to 18-year old adolescents spend an average of 7.5 hours a day using entertainment media, including, TV, computers, video games, cell phones and movies, and only one-third of high school students get the recommended levels of physical activity needed to burn half of these calories. This is terrible news for our kids, we should wake up and fix things before the somehow get worse than what they already are.

Is Religion An Effective Deterrent Against Juvenile...

Research Question(s): Is religion an effective deterrent against juvenile delinquency? If not then what are other effective deterrents? Intro: Children are characterized as being innocent or at least not responsible for their action since science shows that their brains are not yet fully formed. Despite this belief, there exists a branch of the criminal justice system that deals with juvenile offenders. There is much speculation about what causes children to go down a criminal path and if there are any areas of their lives that can be focused on in order to serve as a deterrence to that path. One such path is religion and we will see if it has the capability to act as a deterrent, and if not then what other factors can be examined. Proverbs 22:6 (The New King James Version) reads â€Å"train up a child the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it.† Though this is taken from a religious scripture, it is also a common-held belief that the things we teach our children, like saying please and thank you, honesty is the best policy and that sharing is caring, will remain with them as they get older and will guide them. But what happens if the lessons they learn from their families is not enough and they do depart? What is it that can bring them back? Part one: religion as a deterrent There are mixed and often contradictory conclusions about the correlation between religion and reducing delinquency. In the 1969 article â€Å"Hellfire and Delinquency†, StarkShow MoreRelatedSubstance Abuse15082 Words   |  61 Pagesfoetus. P. 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